Detects atoms of a specific element (usually carbon 14) based on their atomic weight. The atoms are accelerated into a beam of fast-moving ions (charged atoms). The mass is then measured by passing the beam through electrical and magnetic fields (both catch any atoms that are not the correct weight for carbon 14); all remaining atoms are pushed through into a detector which uses velocity and energy to count how many atoms are present.
Aerial LiDAR
An aerial mapping technology which uses a laser to illuminate a target and measure distance based on the reflected light. LiDAR can be used to make high-resolution maps of a large geographic area.
Apocryphal Texts
Early church writings, usually containing accounts of the lives of Jesus, his apostles and their teachings, that are not included in the New Testament.
Archaeology
The field of study of cultures of the past via the materials, created or altered by humans left behind.
Archaeomagnetic Dating
The study and interpretation of the signatures of the Earth’s magnetic field at past times recorded in archaeological materials. These paleomagnetic signatures are fixed when ferromagnetic materials (method by which certain materials’ form permanent magnets or magnetic attraction), such as magnetite, cool below the Curie point (the temperature where a materials permanent magnetism changes to induced magnetism), freezing the magnetic moment of the material in the direction of the local magnetic field at that time. The direction and magnitude of the magnetic field of the Earth at a particular location varies with time and can be used to constrain the age of materials. In conjunction with techniques such as radiometric dating, the technique can be used to construct and calibrate the geomagnetic polarity time scale. This is one of the dating methodologies used for sites and materials within the last 10,000 years.
Archaeometrical Approach
The analysis of archaeological material using scientific techniques (e.g., geological, chemical) to assist in dating the material. This approach includes carbon 14, thermoluminescence and potassium-argon.
Wall or partition of earth between excavation squares. Balks allow different strata (layers) to be visualized and provide context for the materials found in the excavation.
Bronze Age
A prehistoric period defined by the widespread use of bronze for tools, weapons, etc… Different cultures use different date ranges for the bronze age, but in Israel it is roughly 3300-1200 BCE. The bronze age can be divided into three segments, Early (3300–2000 BCE), Middle (2000–1550 BCE) and Late (1550–1200 BCE).
A 3D model of the elevation of a terrain or object’s surface. Points are taken along the surface, then mapped using X, Y and Z coordinates to create the 3D model.
Dipping Method
The dipping method involves placing—dipping—a sherd of pottery into water before cleaning it. Once the sherd is wet it is examined for any inscriptions or decorations that may not have been visible when it was dry.
Domestic Religion
Religion conducted within a household setting—is the beliefs and traditions practiced in everyday life by individuals or families within their homes. It may differ from the Orthodox version of the same faith traditions.
The study, and interpretations, of inscriptions—writings on durable materials. Through this study, it is sometimes possible to learn about the writer, and the world they lived in. Epigraphy can also be incredibly useful in determining fakes and forgeries.
Excavation
Systemic scientific process of digging and examining a site to document historical context of the site.
A dating method based on the analysis of the damage caused by uranium atoms decaying (known as fission). Uranium undergoes fission spontaneously and at a known rate that is fast enough to leave trails of damage in mineral structure. The density of these trails, or tracks, can be measured to determine how long ago the uranium underwent fission.
The sequencing of ancient plant and animal DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid—the hereditary material in almost all known organisms), used to determine which species are represented by archaeological remains.
Geographic Information System
A general term that can describe any information system that captures, stores, manipulates, analyzes, shares and displays all types of spatial and geographical data.
Geomorphology
The study of the formation and development of landscapes, including human interaction with their surroundings (which takes into account cultural remains found in a landscape), natural formation and development.
Ground-Penetrating Radar
A noninvasive technique that uses electromagnetic pulses (radar) to create images of objects below the surface and stratigraphy. When the radar hits an object or layer, it is reflected back to the receiver. The travel time of the reflected signal indicates the depth of the object or layer.
Roughly 330 BCE – 37 BCE. This is the time in Mediterranean history from the death of Alexander the Great to the rise of the Roman Empire, when Greek culture and civilization dominated the cultural space of the region.
Household Archaeology
Focuses on the study of everyday life of domestic activities and facilities—the social (families, domestic groups and co-habitations), material (dwellings and structures) and behavioral aspects (activities households perform).
Determines the concentration of major, minor and trace elements in samples from almost every field of scientific interest. INAA can be used to determine the composition (and thus the original source location) of various rocks, minerals and organic material.
Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)
An analytical method capable of detecting elements at very low concentrations. This is achieved by passing a small amount of sample through a ionizing source of plasma (plasma being one of the states of matter, the others being solid, liquid and gas), and then using a mass spectrometer to separate and quantify those ions, determining which elements and how much of them are present in the sample. This can be potentially used to trace the origin of ceramics when used with other methods.
Iron Age I
This period is characterized by the widespread use of iron tools. Different cultures have different date ranges for this period, depending on when they adopted iron. In Israel, this is from roughly 1200 – 1000 BCE, also known as the time of the Judges by some.
Iron Age I
Many of the chronological sections are broken up into subsections. The Iron Age II section was from about 1000-586 BCE in Israel. The time of the United and Divided Monarchy of the Israelites until the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians, and start of the Babylonian exile, in 586 BCE. Also known as the First Temple Period, a time when Solomon’s Temple was the center of Israelite religion.
Analysis that measures the isotopic ratios of lead and strontium in artifacts and compares them to natural minerals and sediments for provenience purposes. Isotopes are basically different atoms of the same element (differing in the number of neutrons). It has been shown that in certain conditions the lead isotopic ratios in a metal ingot or object reflect those of the mineral that was originally used. Lead and strontium isotopes can be used potentially to trace the origins of ceramics.
Levant
A reference, mostly used historically, to the geographical region of the Eastern Mediterranean. Encompassing the lands of modern Israel, the Palestinian territories, Jordan, Lebanon, and southern Turkey, the Levant may sometimes be used as a shorthand for the historical lands of the Bible.
Linear A
The undeciphered script used in palace and religious writings of Minoan civilization (ca. 2500–1450 B.C.E.). Linear A documents are found primarily on Crete, but have also been discovered in mainland Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Israel.
A noninvasive technique that detects buried remains through magnetic variations between the remains and the soil surrounding it through the use of a magnetometer—an instrument used to measure intensity and direction of a magnetic field.
Morphology
Within the field of paleography, morphology refers to the precise shape or form of a letter. Since the shape of a letter is different in different script traditions and since letter morphology evolves through time, it is an important aspect of paleographic dating.
Morphometry
The analysis of form and shape (length, width, mass, ratio, angle and area) of landforms, living organisms and other objects. This information can then be used to compare remains between species, landforms from different geographic areas, or artifacts such as ceramic vessels or buildings.
Multispectral Imaging
Captures images at different wavelengths (both visible and invisible to the human eye) across the electromagnetic spectrum. These images are then combined and result in color patterns that the human eye can discern.
Dating the age of rocks based on the magnetism of certain minerals (usually iron) within rocks. The orientation of the magnetic minerals is compared with known movements of the magnetic North Pole over time to determine when a rock formed.
Paleographic Analysis
The study of handwriting on a document to identify the shape of the letters and the sentence structure of the text, as well as to read, understand and date it.
Patina
A thin layer (or sheen) that forms on the surface of stone, metal and wood over time due to exposure to the elements, oxidation, age, wear, polishing and normal use of an object.
Persian Period
used primarily in biblical studies, this refers to the time when the Persian Empire dominated the region politically, about 586 BCE–332 BCE. This encompasses the fall of the First Temple to the conquests of Alexander the Great.
Petrography
The detailed description of the mineral composition (i.e., what minerals are combined to make the clay) of pottery.
Philology
The study of linguistics (languages and their structures)—both historical and comparative—in written historical sources (literary texts and written records) in order to
establish a text’s authenticity as well as its original form and meaning.
Photogrammetry
The use of photography to take measurements in surveying or mapping to create a map, drawing or 3D model. Photogrammetry can be used to determine the exact position of an object, artifact or building.
Point Cloud Technology
Technology that utilizes 3D scanners—which record thousands of points on a building or object’s surface—to produce a data file that can be used to create a 3D image or map.
Potassium-Argon Dating (K-Ar dating)
A dating technique based on the decay of potassium into argon in a sample. Potassium decays at a known rate, and by measuring the ratio of potassium to argon, scientists can determine the age of an object./dd>
Phylogeography
Study of which historical processes—such as continental drift, formation or movement of bodies of water and climate change—may have controlled the geographic distribution of species.
Phytoliths
Are microscopic pieces of silica (aka Silicon Dioxide, a chemical compound that is an oxide of silicon) that form in the cells of many types of plants. Phytoliths are inorganic particles, thus they survive after the plants themselves begin to decay and can be used to identify which types of plants were present at a site.
Point Cloud Technology
Utilizes 3D scanners—which record thousands of points on a building or object’s surface—to produce a data file that can be used to create a 3D image or map.
Potassium-Argon dating (K-Ar dating)
Based on the decay of potassium into argon in a sample. Potassium decays at a known rate, and by measuring the ratio of potassium to argon, scientists can determine the age of an object.
Principle of Superposition
The basic principle is that, unless the land has been disturbed, the oldest material will be in the lowest layers, and that the layers above will be progressively less ancient. This principle is important to aging artifacts and the cultures at individual sites.
Radiocarbon (aka carbon 14) dating measures the decay of carbon 14—a naturally occurring radioactive isotope—to determine the age of an organism. Carbon 14 is continually produced in the atmosphere, thus all plants and animals take in small amounts of this isotope while alive, plants via photosynthesis and animals by eating plants. When an animal or plant dies, it stops taking in carbon 14, and the carbon 14 already in its system begins to decay. The amount of carbon 14 contained in a sample can be used to date the organism; the older a sample is, the less carbon 14 present.
Radiometric Dating
A technique that is used to date minerals—rocks or carbon—by measuring the ratio of radioactive isotopes (an atom that has the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons than the most stable version of that atom. For example, carbon 14 is an isotope of carbon) and their decay products.
Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI)
Photographic technique in which an object is photographed by a stationary camera using a movable light source. In each photograph, the light source is moved to a different position. These images are then combined to create an image of the object with varying highlights and shadows that can be manipulated to reveal information that may not be visible to the naked eye.
Rehydroxylation
Is the process of using the weight of ceramics to determine their dating. As a ceramic vessel is removed from a kiln, the clay begins to recombine chemically with moisture in the environment. The extra moisture increases the weight of the vessel; that weight can then be measured to determine how much time has passed since the vessel was fired.
Remote Censoring Technologies
Remote censoring technologies allow information to be gained about an object, layer or geographical area without physically touching or seeing the object—without excavation. Remote censoring techniques include ground-penetrating radar, aerial photography, LiDAR and satellite imagery.
Resistivity
The resistance of soil or buried features to the passage of electric currents. Materials resist electricity differently based on the amount of water present (e.g., a stone wall will offer more resistance to electricity than a damp hole or pit). Metal probes are inserted into the ground to conduct electricity and the level of resistance is measured by an electronic resistivity meter.
Archaeology carried out when a site is undergoing modern construction or land development. In many countries, such as Israel and the United Kingdom, the law requires an archaeological survey to be performed prior to any construction.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
Machine that passes a beam of electrons (subatomic particles) through electromagnets and lenses to bounce them off a sample (object). When an electron hits an object it relays signals that are collected and sent to a screen (much like television signals) which displays a high-resolution, magnified image of the object.
Second Temple Period
Starting after the Israelites were permitted to return to Jerusalem, and rebuild the temple (approximately 538 BCE), the Second Temple Period covers the time until the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD. The late second temple period, from the 1st century BCE until 70 AD, was the historical context in which the historical Jesus was born and lived.
Seriation
A means of situating an object within a series—is the organization of assemblages or artifacts from a single archaeological tradition, site or region, into a chronological sequence according to the changes of their attributes or frequency of appearance.
Sherd
A broken piece of pottery. Unlike “shard’ it refers only to pottery, not other materials.
Sieving
A technique in which the fill from the site is sifted, shaken or poured through a fine mesh, or closely perforated metal or plastic tray (a sieve), to collect tiny artifacts and remains.
Sociolinguistic Examination
The analysis of the relationship between language and society—how language is influenced by social and cultural factors. Sociolinguists examine if social structure influences or determines linguistic structure, or if it is the other way around, or if language and society influence each other.
Spatial Analysis
examines locations (sites) and attributes (buildings and artifacts) of features in spatial—the expanse or space in which things are located—data. Spatial analysis can also be used to study the concentration of human activity in a defined space.
Structure From Motion Photography (SfM)
Technique used to create 3D models by combining multiple photographs taken from different angles into a single 3D image.
The means in which remains accumulate and are preserved. In archaeology, taphonomy is used to define and describe evidence of human use of plant and animal remains over natural deposits.
Taphonomy
The study of what happens to an organism after its death, including decomposition, transport, burial and preservation of remains.
Tell or tel
A mound made up of strata of human habitation over long periods of time. It is formed over centuries, when newer settlements are built on top of the remains of older ones. This layering causes the settlement to rise above the landscape over time. Archaeology in the Middle East often involves excavating Tells.
Textual Criticism
The study of written texts in an effort to discern the most original form of a document. Textual critics focus on the identification and removal of scribal errors that arise over time, as a text is copied and recopied by hand, as well as intentional changes.
Textual Witnesses
Different ancient manuscripts recounting narratives, sayings, etc., that also appear in the Biblical canon. They are used by text critics to discover dissimilarities—known as variant readings—and to explain how those variant readings might have entered the text (i.e., accidental or intentional).
Thermoluminescence Dating
Dating via measurements of the amount of radiation—in this case a faint blue light known as thermoluminescence—given off by an archaeological artifact (usually ceramics) when heated. Over time, artifacts absorb radiation from their environment. Thus the older the artifact, the more radiation it has absorbed and the brighter it will glow.
Typology
The systematic classification of objects according to their physical characteristics into groups. In archaeology, artifacts can also be classified based on their function (functional typology), their placement in a geographic or temporal context (artifact typology) or their overall similarities of shape, size and superficial characteristics(morphological typology).
Total Stations
Electronic/optical instruments used to collect data. A Total Station is composed of an electronic theodolite—a device used to measure angles—and an electronic distance meter that reads the distance from the instrument to a particular point, calculates that distance using the theodolite, then stores the data of thousands of points which are then used by a computer to create a map of the area or building surveyed.
A technique in which an object is blasted with X-rays, which cause each atom to release a characteristic light color; light given off after this bombardment can be read by X-ray fluorescence spectrometers—a machine used to record and measure wavelengths—to produce a list of atoms that make up the object.
X-ray Computed Tomography (CT)
A method to see inside an object without destroying it. CT uses computers to combine several X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images of a scanned object. CT scans can be utilized by microtomographic technology to create a high-resolution 3D model.
