The Origins of Judaism
When did the laws of the Torah become the norm?
Public ritual bath from the Herodian fortress at Masada, and the origins of Judaism. The massive emergence of similar pools across Judea, in accordance with the purity laws of the Torah, corresponds with the origins of Judaism in the mid-second century BCE. Photo by Talmoryair, CC BY 3.0.
Where can we situate the origins of Judaism? If we were able to travel back in time, would we find ancient Israelites and Judeans following the laws of the Torah during the First Temple period? Almost certainly not, claims Yonatan Adler in his recent scholarly book and a popular article that was just published in the Winter 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review. So, what about during the Babylonian Exile (sixth century BCE), which is when many biblical scholars date the completion of the Torah? In his article “The Genesis of Judaism,” Adler asserts that even at this later date, most ordinary Judeans were not yet following the laws of the Torah. What does this mean for the origins of Judaism?
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The Genesis of Judaism
For millennia, Jewish identity has been closely associated with observance of the laws of the Torah. The biblical books of Deuteronomy and Leviticus give numerous prohibitions and commandments that regulate different aspects of Jewish life—from prayers and religious rituals to agriculture to dietary prescriptions and ritual bathing. It stands to reason that the moment when people in ancient Judea recognized these laws as authoritative would mark the origins of Judaism.
As Adler discusses, however, even the Bible itself presents a somewhat different picture:
Ancient Israelite society is never portrayed as keeping the laws of the Torah. The Israelites during the time of the First Temple are never said to refrain from eating pork or shrimp, from doing this or that on the Sabbath, or from wearing mixtures of linen and wool. … Nor is anybody ever said to wear fringes on their clothing, to don tefillin on their arm and head, or to have an inscribed mezuzah on the doorposts of their homes. Whatever it is that the biblical Israelites are doing, they do not seem to be practicing Judaism!
So, when can we date the actual origins of Judaism? Or, as Yonatan Adler puts it: “When did ancient Judeans, as a society, first begin to observe the laws of the Torah in their daily lives?” To answer this question, Adler looks at the archaeological evidence for widespread observance of the laws of the Torah. He suggests that our inquiry begin in the first century CE, where we have plenty of evidence. He then goes backward in time, until he reaches a point when we can no longer see material traces of typical Jewish religious and ritual practices.
The Judean community on Elephantine, in southern Egypt, produced a wealth of documents in Aramaic, including this adoption contract from October 22, 416 BCE. They provide clues also about observance (or not observance) of the laws of the Torah. Photo courtesy of Brooklyn Museum, Bequest of Theodora Wilbour, from the collection of her father, Charles Edwin Wilbour.
In particular, Adler traces archaeological imprints of the biblical laws addressing dietary prohibitions, ritual purity, graven images, tefillin and mezuzot, and Sabbath observance. In every instance, the trail of archaeological evidence ends in the mid-second century BCE—moving the origins of Judaism several centuries later than even the most critical scholars previously thought.
Surprisingly, textual sources from Babylon and Egypt, including this letter from the island of Elephantine, reveal that fifth-century BCE Judeans did not celebrate Passover at a set date, were not aware of a seven-day week or the Sabbath prohibitions, and that they sometimes prayed to deities other than Yahweh.
Widespread observance of the ritual purity laws, as attested through ritual baths (later known as mikva’ot) and the use of chalk vessels, is strong in the first century BCE but gradually disappears as we look further back in time past the late second century BCE.
When it comes to the biblical command against graven images (Deuteronomy 5:8), we can see that during the Persian period even the high priests were issuing coins with depictions of human and animal figures. The pictured silver coin from around 350 BCE bears, on its obverse, a crude depiction of a human head. The reverse features a standing owl with the feathers of the head forming a beaded circle. The Hebrew inscription reads “Hezekiah the governor,” referring to the governor of the Persian province of Yehud (Judea).
Persian-period Yehud coin, from c. 350 BCE. The presence of graven images contradicts the laws of the Torah. Photo by Classical Numismatic Group, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.
Only a century later, in the Hasmonean and Herodian periods, Judean leaders consciously refrained from using figurative imagery, which they replaced with decorative elements and more extensive texts—apparently adhering to the pentateuchal prohibition against graven images. Instead, the pictured bronze prutah of John Hyrcanus I from the late second century BCE features, on the reverse side, two cornucopias adorned with ribbons, and a pomegranate between them. Its obverse bears a lengthy Old Hebrew inscription inside a wreath that reads, “Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Judeans.”
Hasmonean coin of John Hyrcanus I, from the late second century BCE. The absence of any human or animal figures seems to signal widespread acceptance of the laws of the Torah and to herald the origins of Judaism. Photo in public domain.
In sum, the archaeological evidence for observance of the laws of the Torah in the daily lives of ordinary Judeans seems to situate the origins of Judaism around the middle of the second century BCE.
To delve into the intricacies of the textual and archaeological evidence for widespread observance of the laws of the Torah and the origins of Judaism, read Yonatan Adler’s article “The Genesis of Judaism,” published in the Winter 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.
Subscribers: Read the full article “The Genesis of Judaism” by Yonatan Adler in the Winter 2022 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.
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Interesting article but the Bible is clear that many did not follow the practices laid down by God to the people of Israel. Even kings are recorded as violating Gods laws. While finding graven images is evidence of those who did not follow Judaism, it is not proof that others were not following Judaism or not making graven images for religious reasons. And a lack of written material during this time stating their beliefs is understandably absent since any kind of writing except on clay or stone carvings is almost non-existent. Therefore, finding evidence that these laws were violated is not necessarily evidence that the laws did not exist during that time.
It’s funny that even scholars conveniently ignore the next words of the 10 Commandments. The prohibition against graven images is immediately followed by its rationale: “You shall not bow down to them nor serve them.” Ergo, it does not follow that Jews were prohibited to make coins that had a face carved into them, just as long as they didn’t worship them.
Well said. The Mt Ebal Curse Tablet appears to reinforce the Biblical events referred to in Deuteronomy and Joshua regarding the Israelites worshipping at Ebal, uttering the curses in the Law of Moses. It seems to date from the 1400s BCE (nice knowing ya, Ramesside Exodus theory), mentions Yahweh by name 4 times, written in Proto-Sinaitic script. Michael Shelomo Bar-Ron’s recent translations of the Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions also support the historicity of Exodus-related events.
As a believer (of which BAR has no understanding), I will state the obvious as found in the Bible. God does not change, therefore the laws of God were extant even before man was created. Avraham knew and understood the entirety of the statutes, commandments, and law (Gen. 26:5 …and Avraham kept my keeping, my commandments my stautes and my laws.) From that time on the law was observed. Since the commandments, statutes, and law were considered holy, you would not find extra biblical sources relating to it.
Jump to the time of Yeshua and it is clear the rabbinics had removed God from the law. The law was now on equal footing as the rabbinics and was being manipulated by the rabbinics, hence Yeshua’s issue with the Pharisees and the Sadducees. This why you will find extra biblical documents regarding the law just pior to and from this time forth. I think that maybe BAR scholars (as they call themselves) need to wake up a bit.
And that’s why he fornicated with Hagar.
Can’t help but think about the Maccabean Revolt when presented that suggested dating. Wondering if the rise of the Pharisaic movement was related to the forces driving the revolt, or perhaps a separate but related response to Hellenistic pressures.
The monotheism of Judaism developed the same way as that of Islam by evolving from a polytheistic belief in many gods. Originally both Yahweh & Allah were only one of many different gods in Canaan & Arabia but eventually Yahweh was selected as the sole god to be worshiped just as Mohammed selected Allah to be the sole god when he formed Islam (using tenets and history from Judaism as a guide). This evolutionary path is glimpsed in the Bible when it had been reduced to one male god and one female goddess, Yahweh and Asherah, before Asherah was eliminated by, IIRC, King Josiah.
Baseless unadulterated nonsense! Allah (Satan) was invented around 600 AD and based on an apparent demonic encounter by Muhammad. The worship of Yahweh (God) dates back to the beginning of creation (albeit under some different name probably), certainly long before the entry of the Israelites into Canaan. As a consequence of Joshua’s conquest not eradicating all the Canaanites along with their idolatry, Asherah along with other Satanic idols were eventually incorporated into the Israelites’ worship, which was naturally followed by God’s judgment, resulting in said idols being eliminated, rightfully leaving only Yahweh left to be worshipped. The Bible blatantly contradicts your evidently false narrative!
David Holland said >>Wondering if the rise of the Pharisaic movement was related to the forces driving the revolt<<
I wasn't alive in those days (contrary to what my kids say), and can only say they were the people's choice and party of the common people at least as early as Alexander Yannai ("Jannæus"). But I do know one thing:
The Pharisees were not happy that after the battles were history, the Khasmonayeem ("Hasmoneans") had both the kingship and the priesthood. Previously there was a balance of power: Kings were of the Davidic line, and priests were descendants of Aharon" {Aaron").
Now the priests, labeled "Sadducees" (derived from the ancient high priest Tzadok) controlled both powerful positions. Clashes were inevitable.
Contrary to what this article claims, there is plenty of evidence in the Hebrew Scriptures that the Mosaic Law was promulgated and obeyed and disobeyed in the 2nd Millennium BCE, and thereafter. The record speaks for itself, and the hypothesis put forth in this article is without basis.
That the people of Israel would not obey the Mosaic Law was predicted by Moses himself in the 15th c. BCE in Deut ch. 32. A summary of what is predicts is stated in Deut 31:19-21, which says in part, “When I bring them to the land that I have sworn about to their forefathers—one flowing with milk and honey—and they eat their fill and prosper, they will turn to other gods and serve them and treat me with disrespect and break my covenant.”
Subsequent Bible writers noted how the Israelites acted in fulfillment of Moses’ words: Judg 2:11-23 shows how they conducted themselves during the time of the Judges and it says in part, “They abandoned Jehovah and served Baal and the Ashtoreth images. At this Jehovah’s anger blazed against Israel, so he handed them over to plunderers who pillaged them. He sold them into the hand of the enemies around them … and they were in great distress. So Jehovah would raise up judges who would save them from the hand of their plunderers. But they refused to listen even to the judges and would prostitute themselves to other gods and bow down to them … But when the judge died, they would again act more corruptly than their fathers by following other gods, serving them and bowing down to them. They did not abandon their practices and their stubborn behavior.”
Here is a summary of their actions during the time when they had kings: “Jehovah the God of their forefathers kept warning them by means of his messengers, warning them again and again, because he felt compassion for his people and for his dwelling place. But they kept ridiculing the messengers of the true God, and they despised his words and mocked his prophets” (2Chron 36:15, 16).
Their status in the 8th c. BCE: “Woe to the sinful nation, the people weighed down with error, a brood of wicked men, corrupt children! They have abandoned Jehovah; they have treated the Holy One of Israel with disrespect; they have turned their backs on him” (Isa 1:4).
But there is abundant evidence in the Hebrew Scriptures that the leaders of Israel at times tried to follow the Mosaic Law and encourage the people to do the same. The passages showing this are listed at the end of this post in the section Observation of the Law of Moses by Israelite national leaders.
The historical books of the Hebrew Scriptures (after Genesis) mostly chronicle the deeds of the leaders of Israel and not those of the common people. So we would not expect to find a great amount of material showing their observance of the Mosaic Law But there is still evidence of the common people keeping the Law. Note the following instances, where the pertinent law is listed first and then an instance or instances of its observance by common people:
No sex during military operations: Lev 15:16; Deut 23:9-11; 1Sam 21:1-5; 2Sam 11:5-13 (11th c. BCE)
Provision for gleaning: Lev 23:22; Ruth 2:2, 3 (12th c. B CE)
Prohibition of eating blood: Lev 17:10-12; 1Sam 14:31-34 (11th c. BCE)
The lack of evidence for phylacteries and mezuzahs and some other features of Judaism proves nothing for the following reasons:
A guiding principle is, “Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.” This is especially true with the small amount of material antiquity that has survived till the present. Not finding archaeological evidence for something does not prove it did not exist.
These 2 rabbinic traditions of phylacteries and mezuzahs did start around the 2nd c. BCE or thereabouts because they are rabbinic creations and not Biblically mandated. Phylacteries and mezuzahs are literal interpretations of the words found in Deut 6:6-8, but there was no need to adopt this literal interpretation. The Israelites were told that the 7-day festival of unleavened bread and the giving of the firstborn of humans and livestock to Jehovah would “serve for you as a sign on your hand and as a memorial on your forehead” to remind them of how they were delivered from Egypt (Ex 13:3-16). This was obviously meant figuratively, and so the similar mention of God’s law being on their hand and forehead should be understood likewise.
The prohibition of images of living creatures was also a rabbinic concoction. Note how such images were used in the Hebrew Scriptures: Cherubs were made to adorn the top of the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:17-22) and the tent cloths that covered the tabernacle (Ex 26:1), and wooden and carved cherubs adorned the interior of Solomon’s temple (1Ki 6:23-29). The huge water basin in Solomon’s temple was supported by 12 metal bulls beneath it (2Chron 4:1-4). Moses himself made a copper serpent for people to gaze upon (Num 21:9). These instances show no prohibition of images among the Hebrews in the Biblical period, except, of course, when they were objects of worship or connected with pagan worship.
This explains why images of living creatures are found on 5th c. BCE Jewish coins and not on 2nd c. BCE ones: The rabbinic tradition for their exclusion did not start until the 2nd c. BCE.
Observation of the Law of Moses by Israelite national leaders:
Observance of the Law in general: 2Chron 34:29-33; Neh 10:1-39
Judicial matters: Altar to be no refuge for manslayers: Ex 21:14; 1Ki 2:28-34
Establish cities of refuge: Num 35:9-15; Josh 20:1-9
Levites to serve as judges: Deut 17:8, 9; 2Chron 19:8
Purity of worship: Do not give offspring to Molech: Lev 18:21; 2Ki 23:10
Remove spirit mediums & fortune-tellers: Lev 20:27; Deut 18:10, 11; 1Sam 28:3; 2Ki 23:24
Destroy implements of pagan worship: Deut 12:2, 3; 2Ki 23:1-6; 2Chron 23:16, 17; 31:1; 34:3-7
Festival observance: Observe the Sabbath: Ex 20:8-10; Neh 13:15-22
Observe the Festival of Booths: Lev 23:33-36, 39-43; Neh 8:1-3, 13-18
Observe Passover: Deut 16:1-8; Josh 5:10; 2Ki 23:21-23; 2Chron 30:1-27; 35:1-19; Ezra 6:19-22
Clergy support: Give the first fruits and a tenth of the produce to the Levites and priests: Num 18:8, 12, 13, 21; 2Chron 31:4-7; Neh 12:44-47
Citizenship: Ammonites and Moabites not to become full-fledged Israelites: Deut 23:3; Neh 13:1-3
As to when Judaism began, I would say in the Garden of Eden. Yes, some of the descendants of Adam and Eve did not worship Jehovah. Actually, Judaism would have begun at the time the twelve tribes of Israel split into the northern tribes (which formed their own kingdom leaving Judah and Benjamin as the southern Kingdom of Judah). So, Judaism began at this time (about 930 BCE). Although exactly how many and who really followed the Jehovah’s laws is debatable. The Old Testament shows that time and again the prophets called for then to turn back to Jehovah.