BIBLE HISTORY DAILY

Ancient Crucifixion Images

Roman Crucifixion Methods and Jesus’ Crucifixion

This second-century graffito of a Roman crucifixion from Puteoli, Italy, is one of a few ancient crucifixion images that offer a first-hand glimpse of Roman crucifixion methods and what Jesus’ crucifixion may have looked like to a bystander.

Crucifixion images abound today—from sculptures and icons in churches to the masterful paintings hanging in museums. But how many of these actually give us a realistic idea of what Jesus’ crucifixion looked like? Do these artistic crucifixion images accurately reflect ancient Roman crucifixion methods?

In the March/April 2013 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review, Biblical scholar Ben Witherington addresses these questions by looking at some of the earliest archaeological evidence of crucifixion and imagery roughly contemporary with Jesus’ crucifixion.

Witherington discusses three crucifixion images—two wall graffiti and a magical amulet—from the first centuries of the Christian era.

The two graffiti were both discovered in Italy—one, the so called Alexamenos graffito, on the Palatine Hill in Rome and the other (pictured right) in Puteoli during an excavation. Both show a crucified figure on a cross and date to sometime between the late first and mid-third centuries A.D. Likewise, a striking red gemstone bears a crucified figure surrounded by a magical inscription.


The Bible History Daily feature Roman Crucifixion Methods Reveal the History of Crucifixion includes a full “Scholars’ Corner: New Analysis of the Crucified Man,” by Hershel Shanks.

Scholars have long assumed that early Christians did not depict Jesus’ crucifixion; however, a christogram symbol depicting Jesus’ crucifixion sets the date back by 150-200 years. Read The Staurogram: The earliest images of Jesus on the cross in Bible History Daily.


All three of these ancient crucifixion images shed light on the reality of Roman crucifixion in practice and share a few features in common: The crosses are in the shape of a capital tau, or Greek letter T; the Puteoli graffito and the gemstone seem to depict figures who have been whipped or flayed; all three figures appear to be nude, perhaps explaining why at least two of them are shown from behind; and in each case, the feet seem to be apart and possibly nailed separately (unlike the overlapping feet of Jesus in popular portrayals). That last feature is supported by the well-known ankle bone of a crucified man discovered in Jerusalem, which still had an iron nail embedded in its side.

Assuming that Roman crucifixion methods were similar throughout the empire, these crucifixion images give us a more authentic depiction of how Jesus’ crucifixion was carried out.

——

To read more about ancient crucifixion images and what they can tell us about Roman crucifixion methods and Jesus’ crucifixion, see Ben Witherington III, Biblical Views: “Images of Crucifixion: Fresh Evidence” in the March/April 2013 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

Related Content in Bible History Daily

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Roman Crucifixion Methods Reveal the History of Crucifixion

The Staurogram

A Tomb in Jerusalem Reveals the History of Crucifixion and Roman Crucifixion Methods

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library:

Images of Crucifixion: Fresh Evidence
Crucifixion—The Archaeological Evidence
Conversion, Crucifixion and Celebration: St. Philip’s Martyrium at Hierapolis draws thousands over the centuries
Two Questions About Crucifixion – Does the victim die of asphyxiation? Would nails in the hand hold the weight of the body?
Jesus’ Triumphal March to Crucifixion: The sacred way as Roman procession

Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

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21 Responses

  1. Brianroy says:

    n the Syriac of Ignatius’ letter to the Ephesians, .9., Ignatius clarifies:
    “And you are prepared for the building of GOD the Father,
    and you are raised up on high by the instrument of Jesus Christ, which is the Cross,
    and you are drawn by the rope, which is the Holy Spirit;
    and your pulley, is your Faith;
    and your Love [Heb. “ahavah” – your GOD – breathed trust] is that Way
    [or Path] which leads up on high to GOD.”

    The drawing up of the Cross, by rope-and-pulley, was accomplished by means of metal stakes that were driven into the Cross; which was a more sophisticated task than most modern scholars and lay people comprehend. Tertullian, the renowned Carthaginian Christian lawyer who resided and practiced in Rome from ca. 190 – 210 A.D., furthers our understanding about the Cross upon which Christ was crucified, saying:
    ” ‘His glory, is that of a bullock. His horns, are that of a unicorn; (and) with them, shall He push the nations to the very ends of the Earth.’ He was not, of course, designated as a mere unicorn with its one horn, or a Minotaur with two; but Christ was indicated in him — a bullock, in respect of both His characteristics — to some, as a severe Judge; to others, as a gentle Savior; whose horns were the extremities of His Cross. For the antenna, which is part of the Cross, the ends are called horns; while the mid-way stake of the whole frame is the Unicorn. His Cross is then, by this virtue and in this manner, “horned”. He is both now pushing all nations through Faith, bearing them away from Earth to Heaven; and will then push them through Judgment, casting them down from Heaven to Earth.” (Tertullian, Against Marcion, Book 3, Chapter 18)

    Here we see a long metal protrusive stake through the back of the Cross, which is called a “unicorn”. We also see the inference to metal spike also in the extremities of the Cross, likened to those Passover strokes of Lamb’s blood on the door posts and lintel, which are called “antenna”. It was to these that perhaps only 3 slaves were required to winch up a Cross and set it, while the soldiers could do their job, and stand guard; ensuring that the execution is carried out without interruption.
    “Thou hast heard Me from the horns of the unicorns…”
    (Psalm 22:21 – KJV)

    Again, in “An Answer to the Jews”, Tertullian explains:
    “For even in the ship’s yard — this is the name by which the extremities are called, which is a part of (the Cross), — the central pole of a mast is (called) a ‘unicorn’. In fact, by this power and in and in this manner (is) the Cross ‘horned’.” (Tertullian, An Answer to the Jews, .10)

    The Romans used workers who used a contraption. The victim was nailed to a cross-beam, hoisted by rope and pulley, and placed on the vertical assembly and secured.

  2. Ronda says:

    Another point is this. A symbol can mean many different things and the meanings can change. It is up to an individual to decide what the symbol means. Example: the rainbow. When I see a rainbow I remember God’s promise to Noah. I also think about Leprechauns and post of gold. I also think about children as the rainbow has often been part of childhood. ( Remember the “Reading Rainbow” program on PBS? My Little Ponies? How many pre-schools were a “rainbow nursery” school. BUT… today the rainbow now means “Gay Pride” This upsets me to think that one group can “claim the rainbow” I think they need an original symbol. Lol. Again my point– a symbol means what you want it to mean. An we should not criticize if a symbol remind someone of God or if someone does not want to see the symbol Please read Romans 14.

    1. Lester Stere says:

      The cross is the ultimate symbol for the crucifixion of Christ. I give out pennies with the cross punched in them and tell people whether you are an atheist, Muslim, Moonie, etc. you still know what that symbol means. So Christ did not die on a tree, pole, a ‘T’, but on a cross so that symbol would withstand the test of time. We sometimes forget that God is in all things.

  3. Ronda says:

    So have you ever read the “original Greek description” or are you just believing what someone else has claimed? Here’s the thing from actual history. First century Christians used two symbols. The cross and a fish. These are found scratched in the catacombs under Rome where the Christians hid because of persecution by Romans. First century Christians had grandparents who may have seen the crucifixion Why would they use that symbol if it did not apply. This symbol is not something introduced by a “political church” which was much later.

  4. Matt says:

    Paula. You should read what you wrote and understand on what it is to be a Christian. A Christian does not worship the cross, but it is a reminder of His sacrifice. To put into context for you. I am married and wear a wedding ring. It is a symbol of our sacred bond. I do not worship my ring nor do I worship the cross. When you quote to Bible you should be aware of the context it was written in. You should be aware that they were worshiping a golden calf. We worship Jesus not the cross.
    Kurt. I know the JW love to take things out of context also. Your men are outdated and also love to mislead.

  5. Paula Colosi says:

    Whether or not the stauros was in the shape of the cross or not is really irrelevant and a mute point. Either way, God’s word is perfectly clear about the use of “images” or “idols” in worship of him. Exodus 20:4 Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth: 5 Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I the LORD thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me; (KJV) repeated command 1Jo 5:21 Little children, keep yourselves from idols. (KJV) Amen. Acts 15: 20 But that we write unto them, that they abstain from pollutions of idols, and from fornication, and from things strangled, and from blood. (KJV)
    The fact that the churches of Chritendom violate these commands with flagrant regulatory is a well documented fact. So arguing over whether or not stauros has a cross beam or not is a “useless debate”.

  6. Shawn G. says:

    Phil,
    Stay on topic – the thread is about the cross, not festivals. Where is the historic evidence that it was a “torture stake”. Do not use the limitation of the greek. Where is your “PROOF” that it was a single stake? Secondly, John 20:25 states, “…. But he said unto them, Except I shall see in his hands the print of the nails, and put my finger into the print of the nails, and thrust my hand into his side, I will not believe.” NOTE: it is nailS in his handS – PLURAL, not singular. There is absolutely zero evidence for a nail through the hands on a single stake – zero.

    1. Lemon says:

      This same article tells us it’s likely the feet were nailed separately despite popular depictions. Having the hands nailed separately simply means they’re nailed separately. That in itself doesn’t rule out a simple upright post being used in Jesus’ case.

  7. Phil says:

    @Scott No-one ever said that crucifixion was never used or that the cross was not a form of torture. However, the fact that it existed and was used does not automatically mean that was the method by which Jesus was killed. The original Greek description of Jesus death clearly refers to him dying on a stauros or stake. The assumption that the stauros on which Jesus died was a cross was made at the time that church was converted into a political instrument of the Roman state and started adopting pagan beliefs and symbols in an attempt to convert the pagans and unite pagans and Christians. Then the cross was adopted, which had been used in pagan worship ever since the worship of Tammuz, the deified Nimrod – along with sun festivals like Christmas, fertility festivals like Easter, sun symbols like the halo.

    1. Lemon says:

      Not sure about the Tammuz correlation. What many used to see as a cross in images of Dumuzi/Tammuz turned out to be something else (can’t recall what). Also, that was like one inage. The letter T didn’t show up till the Israelites in Egypt (likely) adopted Egyptian symbols into the first Alphabet with its final letter Taw, an x-mark or + symbol. Tammuz in Babylon is loooong before that, and they used Cuneiform writing. (That bookThe Two Babylons has some outdated data 4 sure) But yes, Stauros and Xylon/Xulon don’t imply anything cross-shaped in their etymology.

  8. Deborah McVey says:

    Is a rat or other animal pictured on his Right shoulder?

  9. Scott Irving says:

    Hey, Kurt the JW! You should know that Spartacus and his army were all crucified in like 85 BC or around there, to the number of 5000 crucified. Crucifixion is well documented and testified to in history and its literature. The “cross” could have had variations in its implementation, but “cross” has been the chosen word for a good long time. It was also an effective execution device, if not slow and painful. What it was not was a single upright stake as you JWs suggest. Maybe your old dead Gov body members should have done their homework better way back when so as to avoid the embarrassment the caused you now 😉 Truth hurts, no?

    1. Lemon says:

      ‘Truth hurts, doesn’t it?’ Don’t confuse expressed opinion as truth, star. The whole issue you’re arguing appears to have gone over your head. It’s a matter of translation. What were the original language words used in historical descriptions of the fate of Spartacus and his army? Is it the Latin word ‘crux’, which actually didn’t originally mean ‘cross’? Was that history first written in Greek, or are the oldest versions in Greek? Were the words ‘stauros’ or ‘xulon’ used to describe what they were hung on? Neither actually implies a cross-shaped object. Stauros seemingly originates from the idea of ‘hanging upon’ and ‘xulon’ means ‘timber’ or ‘wooden post’. In the Septuagint, when the people go to make a house for the Sons of the Prophets in the time of Elisha, it says each man take a ‘timber’ from his own house, the word for timber being ‘xulon’, one of the words used in the New Testament forbthe instrument Jesus was affixed to. The other word used is ‘stauros’, which was also used in antiquity to describe the fence of posts erected around a beseiged city to prevent escape. I dunno if the truth hurts, but maybe it’s uncomfortable for some people who’ve grown up not having an accurate explanation of things.

  10. Nadine H says:

    Very interesting. We have a book titled “A (or The) Doctor at Calvary” that goes thru & explains the details of crucifixion possibilities & results. It can be mind-boggling how the Roman rulers did things back then, but they were “experts on torture”. However, combining that with the traditions & events at the time is even more compelling that God works his plan accordingly – even if we don’t understand why. Throughout the ages, what always gets me is when the world (evil) seems to get the upper hand God uses things to turn it for good purposes. We may not see it (right away, if at all) & things in some aspects may seem worse, but those should serve as reminders that God is in complete control & knows what he’s doing. Another book that comes to mind is “Foxes Book of Martyrs” – some may be glad/thankful they don’t live in that era, but I’m not so sure… satan knows what’s coming & he’s going to be fighting even harder in the days to come.

  11. Jose Marques says:

    aqui parece-me existir realmente lógica neste raciocínio conforme dito por Kurt.
    Stauros realmente nao tem siginificado de cruz.

  12. Kurt says:

    The book The Non-Christian Cross, by John Denham Parsons, states: “There is not a single sentence in any of the numerous writings forming the New Testament, which, in the original Greek, bears even indirect evidence to the effect that the stauros used in the case of Jesus was other than an ordinary stauros; much less to the effect that it consisted, not of one piece of timber, but of two pieces nailed together in the form of a cross. . . . it is not a little misleading upon the part of our teachers to translate the word stauros as ‘cross’ when rendering the Greek documents of the Church into our native tongue, and to support that action by putting ‘cross’ in our lexicons as the meaning of stauros without carefully explaining that that was at any rate not the primary meaning of the word in the days of the Apostles, did not become its primary signification till long afterwards, and became so then, if at all, only because, despite the absence of corroborative evidence, it was for some reason or other assumed that the particular stauros upon which Jesus was executed had that particular shape.”—London, 1896, pp. 23, 24.
    http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200004456
    http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/tl/r1/lp-e?q=cross
    http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1001060094
    http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1001061175#h=321:0-321:957

  13. Jay says:

    The image shown in this article indicates that the stake was inserted into the body through the middle part of the lowest part of the abdomen (the rectum?). I have offered similar gruesome information to an organization almost 20 years ago, possibly it was BAR. The diagram indicates a stake in the lower half of the anatomy and a backbone in the upper half of the diagram. I welcome anyone to correct my bizarre interpretation.

    (I recall reading that Josephus refused to detail Roman crusifixion because it was so gruesome. Also I recall that I did not come up with the above interpretation myself. I have never seen the diagram displayed and what I have written is not entirely my own interpretation but comes from a scource I have forgotten.)

  14. matthias says:

    See: Gunnar Samuelsson “Crucifixion in Antiquity”.

  15. Vasileios Tsialas says:

    Crucifixion methods varied depending on the purpose: sudden death, death or just torture. The angle of the hands by the head or over the head, in combination with the position of the body, had exactly to do with the purpose of the punishment. It is a gross mistake to make uncritical generalizations.

  16. Allan Richardson says:

    These images are more consistent with the results of anatomical experiments with donated cadavers in recent decades: the body would certainly fall down, ripping the hand apart, if nailed through the palm; an unusually heavy body might even fall in this way if nailed above the wrist between radius and ulna (for a gruesome comparison, in modern “instant death” hanging intended to break the neck, if the rope is too slack for the weight, the body might be decapitated); and the nails used in the feet would not be long enough to go through both feet and the plaque (which acted like a washer) and deep enough into the cross to hold. The mechanical solution is, of course, to tie the arms with rope to the crossbar, and if a quicker death is desired by the ruler imposing sentence, nail the palms in addition, causing faster bleeding.

    It is a blessing that information IS so scarce today, since crucifixion was banned by the Roman Empire when it adopted the Christian religion as a state religion, and no other evil rulers have picked it up since then (not even the Nazis). But other gruesome means of execution have remained (non-noble offenders in England were hanged slowly until ALMOST dead, then tied to four horses and ripped by the horses into quarters while still conscious, after seeing their intestines removed; nobility were beheaded with an axe wielded by a skilled headsman, and customarily gave him a “tip” as an incentive to do a quicker job), so humanity apparently has not been Christianized in the heart for the most part.

    However it was done, we must remember, while contemplating the agony endured by Jesus, that millions of other victims suffered the same or worse, without the comfort of knowing their divine nature and expecting resurrection as a consolation. We think of His death TODAY as an unusually brutal one because it is no longer so common. I am sure that Jesus also had compassion on the other victims of crucifixion before His own.

  17. Christopher Scott says:

    This is fascinating.

    Thank you for sharing this relevant information about evidence which might help us better understand Jesus’ crucifixion. Evidence like this at least shows people were killed the same Jesus was helps from an apologetics point of view. And, for people who study the Bible for leadership insights and guidance, this adds to the authority we have when studying the Bible for lessons.

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21 Responses

  1. Brianroy says:

    n the Syriac of Ignatius’ letter to the Ephesians, .9., Ignatius clarifies:
    “And you are prepared for the building of GOD the Father,
    and you are raised up on high by the instrument of Jesus Christ, which is the Cross,
    and you are drawn by the rope, which is the Holy Spirit;
    and your pulley, is your Faith;
    and your Love [Heb. “ahavah” – your GOD – breathed trust] is that Way
    [or Path] which leads up on high to GOD.”

    The drawing up of the Cross, by rope-and-pulley, was accomplished by means of metal stakes that were driven into the Cross; which was a more sophisticated task than most modern scholars and lay people comprehend. Tertullian, the renowned Carthaginian Christian lawyer who resided and practiced in Rome from ca. 190 – 210 A.D., furthers our understanding about the Cross upon which Christ was crucified, saying:
    ” ‘His glory, is that of a bullock. His horns, are that of a unicorn; (and) with them, shall He push the nations to the very ends of the Earth.’ He was not, of course, designated as a mere unicorn with its one horn, or a Minotaur with two; but Christ was indicated in him — a bullock, in respect of both His characteristics — to some, as a severe Judge; to others, as a gentle Savior; whose horns were the extremities of His Cross. For the antenna, which is part of the Cross, the ends are called horns; while the mid-way stake of the whole frame is the Unicorn. His Cross is then, by this virtue and in this manner, “horned”. He is both now pushing all nations through Faith, bearing them away from Earth to Heaven; and will then push them through Judgment, casting them down from Heaven to Earth.” (Tertullian, Against Marcion, Book 3, Chapter 18)

    Here we see a long metal protrusive stake through the back of the Cross, which is called a “unicorn”. We also see the inference to metal spike also in the extremities of the Cross, likened to those Passover strokes of Lamb’s blood on the door posts and lintel, which are called “antenna”. It was to these that perhaps only 3 slaves were required to winch up a Cross and set it, while the soldiers could do their job, and stand guard; ensuring that the execution is carried out without interruption.
    “Thou hast heard Me from the horns of the unicorns…”
    (Psalm 22:21 – KJV)

    Again, in “An Answer to the Jews”, Tertullian explains:
    “For even in the ship’s yard — this is the name by which the extremities are called, which is a part of (the Cross), — the central pole of a mast is (called) a ‘unicorn’. In fact, by this power and in and in this manner (is) the Cross ‘horned’.” (Tertullian, An Answer to the Jews, .10)

    The Romans used workers who used a contraption. The victim was nailed to a cross-beam, hoisted by rope and pulley, and placed on the vertical assembly and secured.

  2. Ronda says:

    Another point is this. A symbol can mean many different things and the meanings can change. It is up to an individual to decide what the symbol means. Example: the rainbow. When I see a rainbow I remember God’s promise to Noah. I also think about Leprechauns and post of gold. I also think about children as the rainbow has often been part of childhood. ( Remember the “Reading Rainbow” program on PBS? My Little Ponies? How many pre-schools were a “rainbow nursery” school. BUT… today the rainbow now means “Gay Pride” This upsets me to think that one group can “claim the rainbow” I think they need an original symbol. Lol. Again my point– a symbol means what you want it to mean. An we should not criticize if a symbol remind someone of God or if someone does not want to see the symbol Please read Romans 14.

    1. Lester Stere says:

      The cross is the ultimate symbol for the crucifixion of Christ. I give out pennies with the cross punched in them and tell people whether you are an atheist, Muslim, Moonie, etc. you still know what that symbol means. So Christ did not die on a tree, pole, a ‘T’, but on a cross so that symbol would withstand the test of time. We sometimes forget that God is in all things.

  3. Ronda says:

    So have you ever read the “original Greek description” or are you just believing what someone else has claimed? Here’s the thing from actual history. First century Christians used two symbols. The cross and a fish. These are found scratched in the catacombs under Rome where the Christians hid because of persecution by Romans. First century Christians had grandparents who may have seen the crucifixion Why would they use that symbol if it did not apply. This symbol is not something introduced by a “political church” which was much later.

  4. Matt says:

    Paula. You should read what you wrote and understand on what it is to be a Christian. A Christian does not worship the cross, but it is a reminder of His sacrifice. To put into context for you. I am married and wear a wedding ring. It is a symbol of our sacred bond. I do not worship my ring nor do I worship the cross. When you quote to Bible you should be aware of the context it was written in. You should be aware that they were worshiping a golden calf. We worship Jesus not the cross.
    Kurt. I know the JW love to take things out of context also. Your men are outdated and also love to mislead.

  5. Paula Colosi says:

    Whether or not the stauros was in the shape of the cross or not is really irrelevant and a mute point. Either way, God’s word is perfectly clear about the use of “images” or “idols” in worship of him. Exodus 20:4 Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth: 5 Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I the LORD thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me; (KJV) repeated command 1Jo 5:21 Little children, keep yourselves from idols. (KJV) Amen. Acts 15: 20 But that we write unto them, that they abstain from pollutions of idols, and from fornication, and from things strangled, and from blood. (KJV)
    The fact that the churches of Chritendom violate these commands with flagrant regulatory is a well documented fact. So arguing over whether or not stauros has a cross beam or not is a “useless debate”.

  6. Shawn G. says:

    Phil,
    Stay on topic – the thread is about the cross, not festivals. Where is the historic evidence that it was a “torture stake”. Do not use the limitation of the greek. Where is your “PROOF” that it was a single stake? Secondly, John 20:25 states, “…. But he said unto them, Except I shall see in his hands the print of the nails, and put my finger into the print of the nails, and thrust my hand into his side, I will not believe.” NOTE: it is nailS in his handS – PLURAL, not singular. There is absolutely zero evidence for a nail through the hands on a single stake – zero.

    1. Lemon says:

      This same article tells us it’s likely the feet were nailed separately despite popular depictions. Having the hands nailed separately simply means they’re nailed separately. That in itself doesn’t rule out a simple upright post being used in Jesus’ case.

  7. Phil says:

    @Scott No-one ever said that crucifixion was never used or that the cross was not a form of torture. However, the fact that it existed and was used does not automatically mean that was the method by which Jesus was killed. The original Greek description of Jesus death clearly refers to him dying on a stauros or stake. The assumption that the stauros on which Jesus died was a cross was made at the time that church was converted into a political instrument of the Roman state and started adopting pagan beliefs and symbols in an attempt to convert the pagans and unite pagans and Christians. Then the cross was adopted, which had been used in pagan worship ever since the worship of Tammuz, the deified Nimrod – along with sun festivals like Christmas, fertility festivals like Easter, sun symbols like the halo.

    1. Lemon says:

      Not sure about the Tammuz correlation. What many used to see as a cross in images of Dumuzi/Tammuz turned out to be something else (can’t recall what). Also, that was like one inage. The letter T didn’t show up till the Israelites in Egypt (likely) adopted Egyptian symbols into the first Alphabet with its final letter Taw, an x-mark or + symbol. Tammuz in Babylon is loooong before that, and they used Cuneiform writing. (That bookThe Two Babylons has some outdated data 4 sure) But yes, Stauros and Xylon/Xulon don’t imply anything cross-shaped in their etymology.

  8. Deborah McVey says:

    Is a rat or other animal pictured on his Right shoulder?

  9. Scott Irving says:

    Hey, Kurt the JW! You should know that Spartacus and his army were all crucified in like 85 BC or around there, to the number of 5000 crucified. Crucifixion is well documented and testified to in history and its literature. The “cross” could have had variations in its implementation, but “cross” has been the chosen word for a good long time. It was also an effective execution device, if not slow and painful. What it was not was a single upright stake as you JWs suggest. Maybe your old dead Gov body members should have done their homework better way back when so as to avoid the embarrassment the caused you now 😉 Truth hurts, no?

    1. Lemon says:

      ‘Truth hurts, doesn’t it?’ Don’t confuse expressed opinion as truth, star. The whole issue you’re arguing appears to have gone over your head. It’s a matter of translation. What were the original language words used in historical descriptions of the fate of Spartacus and his army? Is it the Latin word ‘crux’, which actually didn’t originally mean ‘cross’? Was that history first written in Greek, or are the oldest versions in Greek? Were the words ‘stauros’ or ‘xulon’ used to describe what they were hung on? Neither actually implies a cross-shaped object. Stauros seemingly originates from the idea of ‘hanging upon’ and ‘xulon’ means ‘timber’ or ‘wooden post’. In the Septuagint, when the people go to make a house for the Sons of the Prophets in the time of Elisha, it says each man take a ‘timber’ from his own house, the word for timber being ‘xulon’, one of the words used in the New Testament forbthe instrument Jesus was affixed to. The other word used is ‘stauros’, which was also used in antiquity to describe the fence of posts erected around a beseiged city to prevent escape. I dunno if the truth hurts, but maybe it’s uncomfortable for some people who’ve grown up not having an accurate explanation of things.

  10. Nadine H says:

    Very interesting. We have a book titled “A (or The) Doctor at Calvary” that goes thru & explains the details of crucifixion possibilities & results. It can be mind-boggling how the Roman rulers did things back then, but they were “experts on torture”. However, combining that with the traditions & events at the time is even more compelling that God works his plan accordingly – even if we don’t understand why. Throughout the ages, what always gets me is when the world (evil) seems to get the upper hand God uses things to turn it for good purposes. We may not see it (right away, if at all) & things in some aspects may seem worse, but those should serve as reminders that God is in complete control & knows what he’s doing. Another book that comes to mind is “Foxes Book of Martyrs” – some may be glad/thankful they don’t live in that era, but I’m not so sure… satan knows what’s coming & he’s going to be fighting even harder in the days to come.

  11. Jose Marques says:

    aqui parece-me existir realmente lógica neste raciocínio conforme dito por Kurt.
    Stauros realmente nao tem siginificado de cruz.

  12. Kurt says:

    The book The Non-Christian Cross, by John Denham Parsons, states: “There is not a single sentence in any of the numerous writings forming the New Testament, which, in the original Greek, bears even indirect evidence to the effect that the stauros used in the case of Jesus was other than an ordinary stauros; much less to the effect that it consisted, not of one piece of timber, but of two pieces nailed together in the form of a cross. . . . it is not a little misleading upon the part of our teachers to translate the word stauros as ‘cross’ when rendering the Greek documents of the Church into our native tongue, and to support that action by putting ‘cross’ in our lexicons as the meaning of stauros without carefully explaining that that was at any rate not the primary meaning of the word in the days of the Apostles, did not become its primary signification till long afterwards, and became so then, if at all, only because, despite the absence of corroborative evidence, it was for some reason or other assumed that the particular stauros upon which Jesus was executed had that particular shape.”—London, 1896, pp. 23, 24.
    http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200004456
    http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/tl/r1/lp-e?q=cross
    http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1001060094
    http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1001061175#h=321:0-321:957

  13. Jay says:

    The image shown in this article indicates that the stake was inserted into the body through the middle part of the lowest part of the abdomen (the rectum?). I have offered similar gruesome information to an organization almost 20 years ago, possibly it was BAR. The diagram indicates a stake in the lower half of the anatomy and a backbone in the upper half of the diagram. I welcome anyone to correct my bizarre interpretation.

    (I recall reading that Josephus refused to detail Roman crusifixion because it was so gruesome. Also I recall that I did not come up with the above interpretation myself. I have never seen the diagram displayed and what I have written is not entirely my own interpretation but comes from a scource I have forgotten.)

  14. matthias says:

    See: Gunnar Samuelsson “Crucifixion in Antiquity”.

  15. Vasileios Tsialas says:

    Crucifixion methods varied depending on the purpose: sudden death, death or just torture. The angle of the hands by the head or over the head, in combination with the position of the body, had exactly to do with the purpose of the punishment. It is a gross mistake to make uncritical generalizations.

  16. Allan Richardson says:

    These images are more consistent with the results of anatomical experiments with donated cadavers in recent decades: the body would certainly fall down, ripping the hand apart, if nailed through the palm; an unusually heavy body might even fall in this way if nailed above the wrist between radius and ulna (for a gruesome comparison, in modern “instant death” hanging intended to break the neck, if the rope is too slack for the weight, the body might be decapitated); and the nails used in the feet would not be long enough to go through both feet and the plaque (which acted like a washer) and deep enough into the cross to hold. The mechanical solution is, of course, to tie the arms with rope to the crossbar, and if a quicker death is desired by the ruler imposing sentence, nail the palms in addition, causing faster bleeding.

    It is a blessing that information IS so scarce today, since crucifixion was banned by the Roman Empire when it adopted the Christian religion as a state religion, and no other evil rulers have picked it up since then (not even the Nazis). But other gruesome means of execution have remained (non-noble offenders in England were hanged slowly until ALMOST dead, then tied to four horses and ripped by the horses into quarters while still conscious, after seeing their intestines removed; nobility were beheaded with an axe wielded by a skilled headsman, and customarily gave him a “tip” as an incentive to do a quicker job), so humanity apparently has not been Christianized in the heart for the most part.

    However it was done, we must remember, while contemplating the agony endured by Jesus, that millions of other victims suffered the same or worse, without the comfort of knowing their divine nature and expecting resurrection as a consolation. We think of His death TODAY as an unusually brutal one because it is no longer so common. I am sure that Jesus also had compassion on the other victims of crucifixion before His own.

  17. Christopher Scott says:

    This is fascinating.

    Thank you for sharing this relevant information about evidence which might help us better understand Jesus’ crucifixion. Evidence like this at least shows people were killed the same Jesus was helps from an apologetics point of view. And, for people who study the Bible for leadership insights and guidance, this adds to the authority we have when studying the Bible for lessons.

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